The Egyptian government tests around 13 million drinking-water samples every year, but refused to share the results with the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights to water, citing national security and the public’s inability to understand them. Meanwhile, a law enacted in September 2025 imposes fines of up to EGP 500,000 on anyone who spreads “rumours” about water quality.
These facts appear in a report prepared by the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, Pedro Arrojo-Agudo, dated 9 July, following a visit to Egypt from 7 to 18 February 2026. It covered Cairo and the governorates of Kafr El-Sheikh, Fayoum, Aswan and Qena, and was the first visit by any UN special procedures mandate holder since 2018, following an earlier visit under the water mandate itself in 2009. The Special Rapporteur is an independent expert appointed by the Human Rights Council; he does not speak on behalf of the United Nations, and his report is an advisory assessment, not a binding decision. The Egyptian government responded in an official document on 30 July, rebutting several of his observations. The two reports were then considered in an interactive dialogue on 14 September, during the Council’s 63rd session, held from 7 September to 7 October.
The report praised some development efforts, but highlighted weaknesses in transparency and access to information, as well as the risk of reprisals against those seeking to participate in environmental and human rights matters. Ten days before the dialogue, on 4 September, the Council published a written statement submitted by the Committee for Justice (CFJ), an independent human rights organisation with UN consultative status. Entitled “Ensuring the rights to water and sanitation in Egypt requires transparency, participation and protection from reprisals”, it highlighted the Rapporteur’s key concerns: unequal access to water and sanitation, a lack of transparency, public participation and accountability, and the situation of the most vulnerable individuals and communities.
During his visit, the government told the Rapporteur that it tests around 13 million water samples annually. When he asked about the results, however, he was told they were not published for reasons of national security and because they were too complex for the public to understand. He rejected that justification, arguing that withholding the results creates a transparency and accountability problem and increases people’s distrust of tap water. Egypt’s response did not address public access to the results, stating only that drinking water is subject to a comprehensive monitoring system involving accredited laboratories, regular sampling and testing throughout production and distribution, in accordance with Egyptian drinking-water standards.
The Rapporteur said the lack of publicly available, disaggregated and verifiable data on project expenditure, procurement and implementation continues to obstruct any independent assessment of compliance with human rights standards. He made this observation while praising the Decent Life initiative, which he described as a flagship national programme promoting integrated rural development. Citing the government, he said the initiative covers thousands of villages and has resulted in 460 sanitation projects and 137 drinking-water projects at various stages of completion. Egypt welcomed this praise and regarded the report as a useful basis for continued dialogue and technical cooperation to advance the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation.
Adel Moatamed, professor of environmental geography at Assiut University, tells Zawia3 that data and numerical indicators are indispensable if claims affirming or denying water quality are to be more than unsupported statements. He adds that the absence of a reliable benchmark against which results can be compared prevents the truth from being established. Restrictions on the findings of some research, which may be steered towards serving particular interests, are another obstacle. He explains that such steering is known worldwide and touches all environmental issues, not water alone, particularly drinking water.
The Rapporteur offers an example of what available data can reveal: the Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics (CAPMAS) estimated drinking-water losses in distribution networks at 26.5% in 2021, a figure experts consider conservative, according to the report. He argued that this indicates multiple leaks in many networks, which not only waste large quantities of water but also create entry points for contaminants that could render it unsafe to drink. Abbas Sharaki, professor of geology and water resources at Cairo University, stresses to Zawia3 the importance of determining the age of water networks and maintaining them regularly to prevent soil contaminants from entering.
A fine equivalent to six years’ wages
The report criticised weak community participation and the role of municipalities, as well as restrictions on public debate about water under Law No. 172 of 2025 regulating drinking-water and sanitation utilities, enacted on 1 September 2025. Article 73 states: “A fine of no less than fifty thousand pounds and no more than five hundred thousand pounds shall be imposed on anyone who disseminates rumours or incorrect information, by any means, about water quality, with the intention of disturbing social peace and security among citizens concerning the condition and quality of water.” Article 79 permits settlement of offences under the law at any stage of proceedings, provided a certificate from the service provider confirms that the causes of the violation have been removed. Offences under Articles 67, 70 and 73 are excluded, meaning that the “rumours” offence cannot be settled.
The Rapporteur compared the fine with the monthly minimum wage of EGP 7,000 (around USD 126). By Zawia3’s calculations, the minimum fine of EGP 50,000 (around USD 901) equals seven months’ minimum-wage earnings, while the maximum of EGP 500,000 (around USD 9,014) equals almost six years’ wages. The government has since raised the public-sector minimum wage to EGP 8,000 per month, slightly changing the calculation for state employees alone.
The Rapporteur argued that the provision’s effect extends beyond preventing public debate on matters directly affecting public health. It also discourages complaints and undermines accountability, independent oversight, local-authority initiatives and scientific research. He said he was unable to meet some researchers and human rights defenders, who preferred to provide testimony online for fear of severe reprisals. Two other experts contacted by Zawia3 to discuss transparency declined to cooperate with this report.
The provision did not pass through parliament unchallenged. When the House of Representatives voted on it on 26 May 2025, MP Ahmed El-Borollosi called for its deletion, because the Penal Code already punishes publication offences and because it “restricts freedom of opinion”. He said: “I cannot understand why we would impose a harsher penalty for a publication offence in this law.” Minister of Parliamentary and Legal Affairs Mahmoud Fawzi responded that “criminalisation is necessary and the penalty is proportionate within the bounds of the Constitution and the law”, and that the court determines whether the elements of the offence are established. The House approved the provision as drafted.
The provision came eight months after a crisis in Aswan, one of the governorates visited by the Rapporteur. In September 2024, the governorate’s hospitals received around 200 cases of acute gastroenteritis, concentrated in Abu El-Rish and Daraw. Deputy Prime Minister for Human Development and Health Minister Khaled Abdel Ghaffar said on 21 September that 128 patients required admission, that the cases could have resulted from contaminated food or water, and that the final report had not yet determined the cause. He described some circulating accounts as exaggerations and malicious rumours, stressing that samples from 103 water stations across the governorate had confirmed the water’s safety. The ministry subsequently announced that food samples had shown contamination by bacteria causing gastroenteritis, while water samples showed no microbiological or chemical changes. Meanwhile, Aswan Governor Ismail Kamal drank from a tap at a school complex and had tea with Abu El-Rish residents, in a move an Al-Ahram headline described as following “the circulation of rumours of its contamination”. He assigned his deputy, Amr Lashin, to accompany Housing Minister Sherif El-Sherbiny in inspecting the Abu El-Rish Qibli water station, which serves more than 20,000 people.
In its response to the report, the government defended existing participation mechanisms, saying effective institutional coordination operates locally through governorate coordination committees. These bring together governorate representatives, their affiliated water and sanitation companies, and the relevant executive bodies, providing a platform to discuss annual investment plans, identify priority needs and follow up citizens’ complaints. It added that CAPMAS reports and performance reports from the Holding Company for Water and Wastewater show substantial improvements in service coverage, quality and operational efficiency since the restructuring undertaken in 2004, which it regarded as evidence of institutional reform’s positive impact.
Scarcity measured in two different ways
The report described Egypt as a country facing extreme water scarcity, relying primarily on the Nile, which provides around 55.5 billion cubic metres of renewable water annually, alongside groundwater directly recharged by the river. In its response, Egypt acknowledged the scarcity crisis, saying the total needs of its population, which it estimated at 120 million, amount to around 110 billion cubic metres a year, leaving a water deficit of nearly 50%. It said it addresses the gap through water treatment and recycling, providing around 21 billion cubic metres, and through “virtual water” obtained by importing food and agricultural products, estimated at around 34 billion cubic metres. The population figure in the response exceeds CAPMAS’s estimate of the population within the country, which stands at 109.5 million.
The Rapporteur acknowledged that Egypt has one of the world’s lowest levels of freshwater availability per person, and that rapid population growth and climate change are increasing pressure on it. Nevertheless, he stressed that the state is obliged to guarantee all residents a minimum supply of safe, affordable water, with particular attention to the most disadvantaged groups and areas. He referred to the UN benchmark of 50 litres per person per day as the minimum required for drinking and domestic use. This means Egypt’s population needs around 2.117 billion cubic metres annually, just over 2% of renewable water resources.
Egypt rejected this percentage, saying it does not reflect the realities of water management, as domestic, drinking-water and industrial uses total 17 to 18 billion cubic metres annually, around 20 to 22% of available resources. The two figures do not measure the same thing: the first is the minimum human requirement for drinking and domestic use, while the second is actual household and industrial consumption combined. The Rapporteur’s point was that guaranteeing everyone a minimum supply uses only a tiny share of resources, so scarcity cannot justify depriving anyone of it.
Egypt said that despite scarcity, drinking-water service coverage has reached around 99%, while sanitation coverage is around 70% nationwide (96% in urban areas and 60% in rural areas). The report cited these figures but distinguished between the presence of a network and actual access to water. It asked whether citizens in fact receive safe water continuously and at a price they can afford, pointing to reports of lengthy interruptions in some villages and water-quality problems in areas including Fayoum, Kafr El-Sheikh and Aswan.
The report stated that the concentration of most of the population and productive activities along the Nile has caused cumulative pollution over roughly 1,000 kilometres, from the High Dam in Aswan to the river’s mouth, through industrial and agricultural wastewater, as well as contaminants seeping into groundwater, threatening drinking water and public health. It cited information indicating that irrigation canals polluted with pesticides, fertilisers and urban and industrial wastewater are the only source of water available for domestic use in many villages; that their consumption is associated with higher rates of kidney and liver disease; and that increased rates of pancreatic cancer have been recorded in the northeastern Delta, potentially linked to elevated levels of heavy metals and organochlorine pesticides in water sources. The report documented schistosomiasis in irrigation canals, along with toxin-producing cyanobacteria resulting from eutrophication, and other bacteria and worms. The Rapporteur relied on two studies dating from 2004 and 2005 because recent public epidemiological data were unavailable, but argued that the causes of pollution had not merely persisted: they had increased, along with their effects on human health.
Egypt’s response did not deny the importance of combating pollution, but said it has legislation and regulatory bodies that inspect and enforce the law against polluters. It also said it has built treatment plants in industrial cities, including the plant in Robbiki Leather City and the industrial wastewater treatment plant in Beni Suef.
Sharaki says water reaching homes is generally good, with most of it coming from the Nile, and that pollutants have multiple sources, including pesticide-laden agricultural drainage and sewage in areas still relying on septic tanks. He adds that the state has established plants providing tertiary treatment for agricultural wastewater and secondary treatment for sewage, with the treated water reused in farming, while drinking water comes primarily from the Nile or groundwater. He explains that pollutants may reach drinking water in areas relying on groundwater. This water is in better condition in the desert because of its depth and distance from contaminants, despite somewhat elevated iron levels. In populated areas such as the Delta, however, pesticide-laden flood-irrigation water and sewage from villages relying on septic tanks may seep into shallow groundwater. He points to state efforts to maintain water quality by increasing penalties for polluting the Nile with agricultural or industrial wastewater or rubbish, and by building filtration and chlorination plants.
Nader Nour El-Din, professor of water resources and soils at Cairo University’s Faculty of Agriculture, agrees that Egypt’s drinking water is safe and free of contaminants. He cites food-export indicators and the absence of water-related epidemics among farmers or the wider public in comments to Zawia3. He says Egypt is the world’s leading exporter of citrus and other crops, and that any contamination of water by agricultural or industrial drainage would have affected its export reputation. He regards the disappearance of hepatitis B and C, and the absence of hospital admissions for drinking-water-borne diseases or epidemics among farmers, as indicators of improved water quality. However, the export indicator concerns irrigation water and crops, not the water reaching homes. Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood and bodily fluids, whereas the forms transmitted through contaminated water and food are hepatitis A and E, according to the WHO.
Responding to the Rapporteur’s findings, Nour El-Din says such reports usually focus more on negatives than on acknowledging advantages. He says the state follows applicable international rules when reusing agricultural drainage water, mixing it with canal water to improve its quality and expanding major tertiary-treatment projects. He cites the Bahr El-Baqar and West Delta plants, which produce more than 5 billion cubic metres of tertiary-treated water, which he considers the purest form of treatment. He adds that management of Upper Egypt drains discharging into the Nile or the Rosetta branch follows international standards based on diluting pollutants with at least ten times as much flowing river water. This is supplemented by the river’s natural “self-purification” through sunlight and the long distance travelled by the water, which he estimates at around 1,200 kilometres from the High Dam to the Delta, compared with the Rapporteur’s estimate of 1,000 kilometres to the mouth. He stresses that Egypt complies with international and domestic laws prohibiting the use of treated wastewater, whether agricultural drainage or sewage, for drinking or even other household purposes. Around 90% of treated water goes to agriculture, where soil acts as a natural “filter”, purifying water through its particles before it reaches roots. The remainder is used by industry for cooling, including in cement, iron and steel plants and military industries.
Desert projects and irrigation water at no charge
The report criticised the expansion of new cities and massive desert irrigation projects that require large withdrawals of Nile water and exploitation of non-renewable or poorly recharged aquifers amid scarcity. It cited Toshka (which the report calls the “New Valley Project”), the West Delta Project and the North Sinai Development Project, warning that these projects must not come at the expense of poor and rural areas, particularly given doubts about some projects’ economic and social viability.
Egypt rejected the criticism, saying urban and agricultural expansion outside the Nile Valley and Delta forms part of a long-term strategy to ease demographic pressure, redistribute the population, achieve food security and reduce import dependence. It said projects such as the New Delta rely heavily on treated agricultural drainage and reuse rather than water allocated for drinking, while irrigation in Toshka involves planned use of Egypt’s share of Nile floodwaters, alongside carefully managed groundwater resources, to grow strategic crops including wheat.
The Rapporteur also criticised the continued provision of irrigation water to farmers free of charge. He noted that the government justifies this as support for small farmers, but observed that the absence of tariff incentives to improve irrigation practices is difficult to justify amid water scarcity, and that water is also provided free to large producers and agribusiness companies. Egypt responded that water is not merely a commodity and that agriculture is directly linked to food security and incomes; charging more for irrigation water could increase food prices and harm poorer groups.
The Rapporteur expressed concern that Law No. 172 of 2025 expands opportunities for private-sector participation in the utilities. He said the public-private partnership model requires stronger, effective community participation to ensure that affordability, equality and access are not compromised, particularly for low-income households. He warned that international financial pressures encouraging privatisation could exacerbate these risks unless accompanied by strong human rights safeguards.
Prisons and informal settlements outside the statistics
The Rapporteur addressed the situation of the most vulnerable individuals and communities. He said he had not visited prisons himself, but had received reports that tap water in some was heavily contaminated and unchlorinated, and in some cases was treated sewage water. Detainees in one prison had reported chronic blockages in the sewerage network. He also drew attention to people living in vulnerable conditions and experiencing poverty and marginalisation, including those fleeing wars in neighbouring countries and living in informal settlements. He explained that living in these areas does not necessarily mean being deprived of drinking water and sanitation, but that the lack of disaggregated data on informal-settlement residents makes it difficult to determine their access to basic services.
Egypt did not devote a paragraph of its response to prisons. Commenting broadly on vulnerable groups, it said that, contrary to the report, Article 79 of the Constitution guarantees every citizen the right to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, and that it is committed to ensuring these rights for everyone on its territory without discrimination, including residents of remote areas, refugees and migrants, in line with Egypt Vision 2030 and Sustainable Development Goal 6. It cited major projects including Decent Life to expand village water and sanitation services, desalination plants in remote and coastal areas, wastewater treatment plants, and a drinking-water tariff structure incorporating financial subsidies to ensure affordability, particularly for people on low incomes.
Holding company demands proof from sceptics
Mostafa El-Shimy, chairman of the Holding Company for Water and Wastewater, did not respond to Zawia3’s attempts to contact him. However, he said in recent televised remarks that 99.9% of Egypt’s drinking water meets standard specifications, and that water reaching homes is safe and passes through multiple purification stages to ensure its quality and safety.
In the interview, El-Shimy listed drinking-water sources: the Nile as a flowing, renewable surface-water source; desalinated seawater, whose production has reached around 2 million cubic metres daily and is targeted to reach 10 million daily by 2050 to serve coastal governorates; and wells in governorates far from the Nile. He said citizens usually believe the state brings water directly from the river or provides it for free, whereas the opposite is true. Water makes a long, costly journey, beginning at the river, then passing through clarifiers to settle impurities and sediment, rapid sand filters to remove fine impurities, chlorine dosing, and finally distribution networks. He explained that each station’s laboratory controls chlorine levels and measures all water-quality parameters through round-the-clock sampling. The company tests more than 10 million samples annually, fewer than the 13 million the government reported to the UN Rapporteur.
Addressing complaints about turbidity and the smell of chlorine, El-Shimy said chlorine dissipates if water is left for a few seconds, and turbidity may occur during pipe repairs when soil sediment mixes with the water. Disinfectants are therefore pumped into networks during repairs. He said there is absolutely nothing to fear as long as water contains chlorine, and that the company provides repair and maintenance services for nominal fees. He did not address chemical contaminants, such as pesticides and heavy metals, which feature prominently in the Rapporteur’s report. He attributed contaminated water reaching homes to certain improper practices, such as drilling shallow private wells, 6 or 7 metres deep, for use during outages. Soil sediment or sewage, particularly in areas relying on septic tanks, can mix with the water and contaminate pipes when drawn by pumps, potentially spreading contamination to neighbouring homes.
On differences in water quality between governorates, he said all complaints received are addressed, and that some signs of contamination appear in well water with high iron and manganese levels. The water changes colour when chlorine is added because it combines with these elements, and if their concentrations exceed the prescribed limit, the well is shut down entirely. He noted that water companies have begun establishing command-and-control systems to detect theft and leaks, but these have not yet been extended to all companies because of their high cost.
Sharaki regards household filters as a purely commercial business that does not chemically treat water. Bottled water, he says, is a suitable option outside the home, although some brands have problems. An investigation published by ARIJ in October 2021 detected coliform bacteria and faecal streptococci in samples from two major bottled-water brands, Aquafina and Dasani. Dasani denied the findings and said product assessment falls exclusively within the remit of the National Food Safety Authority and the Health Ministry. Sharaki advises citizens to repair faults promptly, as breaks and leaks allow impurities in and waste treated water, and to replace deteriorated iron pipes that introduce pollutants into drinking water.
El-Shimy concluded by demanding that anyone questioning water quality provide proof, saying some ill-intentioned people promote such claims, including those profiting from selling filters. He added: “We are telling you the water is good.” The proof he demands depends on the results of 13 million samples that are not published, while anyone who gets it wrong in trying to establish it faces a fine equivalent to years of wages.
